"It [the toga] is not a garment, but a burden."
Quintus Septimius Florens Tertullianus, Early Christian Author and Apologist (c. 155–c. 220 C.E.)
Image 1. Roman Clad in the Toga
Any well-dressed and respectable citizen living in the height of the Roman Republic would not have been seen outside of his or her home without the iconic overclothing of the Roman world. Men wore a toga while women wore the stola (and in cases of higher ranking women—the palla as well) and these items of clothing were not only socially important to dress in but, at times and by decree from those in power, required wear for civic duties and public festivals. These garments were as important as putting on pants before leaving the house in today’s modern age and mentality.
The toga and the stola are outerwear—tunicas were worn underneath these articles of clothing except in the early period of the Roman Republic when both men and women wore just the toga. The toga, the stola, and the palla, were garments of upper class citizens, with the lower class—such as workers and servants—simply wearing the tunica. Not everybody wore the toga and, especially in the later Republican and Early Imperial era, the toga was not worn all the time (Cavazzi, 2008).
There has been plenty of speculation on the toga and the stola as most documentation comes from statuary, funerary reliefs, paintings on walls, and even ivory carvings (Vout, 1996). As we do not have an actual toga or stola to study all of our examinations must be made by looking at the representations of the garment and thoughtful extrapolation.
Understanding the iconic clothing of the Roman Empire is as important as recreating it. When we understand more about the toga, the stola, and the palla, we can make informed decisions on how to make them and, especially, how to wear them correctly. Luckily for us there has been plenty of research on the topic of Roman outerwear ranging from theatrical to museum-quality research that we can explore to help better our understanding of these garments that were “…worthy of the masters of the world”.
The Toga
The toga is, perhaps, the most distinctive garment of Ancient Rome. This garment was originally only worn in the city of Rome itself and was forbidden to exiles and foreigners alike. The toga was Rome, in a sense, and Roman males (with the notable exception of slaves and those of non-Roman birth) proudly wore this garment to show the rest of the world that they were civilized and a citizen in a great Empire—the Roman Empire.
The toga itself is not truly a Roman invention, however. The early Etruscans, who themselves were of Greek origin and who inhabited the Italian peninsula, were fond of wearing a version of what would later be known as the toga which they called tebennas—a long cloak, sometimes with clavi or stripes, that was draped over the left shoulder and wrapped around the body under the right arm (Bonfante, 2003). The tebennas is believed to have originated from Greece and is often described as a modified himation, or a type of rectangular cloak used in the Ancient Greek world. It is said that the founder of the City of Rome, Romulus, favored the toga (Vout, 1996).
In the early days of the Roman Republic the toga was the only article of clothing for both men and women, much like its early Etruscan garment ancestor (Smith, 2012), but as the centuries progressed the toga became an overgarment and it was considered scandalous or quite eccentric to clothe yourself in only a toga with nothing underneath (Cavazzi, 2008). Later, the toga was more of a ceremonial garment and cultural symbol; used by those who were associated with the political activities of Rome—and not an everyday garment…especially by the non-elite (Vout, 1996).
The popularity of the toga declined around the 4th Century C.E where it started to become an unpopular garment not only because it was expensive to upkeep but wearing the toga also made it difficult to get any real work done. Little by little the toga was relegated to certain holy days or civic activities (such as weddings, funerals, attending the state-sponsored games, or even speaking in the Forum), then it was relegated to the aristocracy, then slowly only to the Senate and other higher officials and eventually other overgarment styles, such as the palladium and the cloak (called a lacerna), became popular and in use.
Togas were crafted of wool. While modern readers generally interpret wool as being thick, heavy, and itchy—wool fabrics have much more variations that that—wool fabric, especially in the Mediterranean, would have been finely woven and light weight. While the toga was mostly natural white; there were different color options as well as simple decorations available. These colors and decorations had special meaning to the togatus, or toga-wearer, as well as society at large and were often regulated by social rules and even laws (Rose, 2017).
Because the various colors of togas had different meanings, it is important to understand these when recreating the toga—the coloration was significant in determining not only status but sometimes the age or marital availability of the wearer as well. While there are several different types of togas mentioned by researchers and historians; there are thee common types: plain white togas—toga pura—were worn by worn by men of legal age, usually aged sixteen and above. Bleached white togas, or toga candida, was reserved for candidates for public office or adopted by those already in public office. The toga praetexta, with a broad purple or crimson stripe on the back or used as trim, was used by youth, high ranking officials, and some priests. Other colors had special meaning within Roman society; purple was used strictly for the gods or victorious generals (or in some cases emperors), black was used for mourners or during public anxiety, while yellow was only for certain members of the priesthood and the augers (McManus, 2013).
There are many misconceptions about the toga. Contrary to popular belief, the red border on the toga was worn in times of festivals and not specifically used as a sign of rank. Also, the shape of a toga is not rectangular as is commonly believed. While historians cannot tell us exactly what shape the toga was, there are many educated guesses by reenactors, enthusiasts, and historians alike and all of them agree that a rectangular shape, such as the shape of a bed sheet, cannot provide the classic shape as seen in statuary or pictorial evidence from Ancient Rome—much to the dismay of Greek Letter fraternities in universities throughout the world. The most common consensus is that the toga was a trapezoid or a half circle or oval or, as shown below, its own unique shape.
Image 2. Ideal Shape of the Toga
The toga was not pinned or sewed into form—it was carefully draped around the body; and while looking dignified and stately the wearer probably would not have been very active as to keep his toga looking spectacular and, more importantly, in place. A simple method to putting on the toga is as follows: the toga would be worn by holding the toga over the left arm, with the length of fabric half behind, half in front. The back part is brought under the right arm, and the tail is then folded over the left shoulder. The remainder of the garment hanging in front of the body could be tucked into the fold in front of the body thus creating the well-known draping effect commonly associated with this article of clothing.
Image 3. Putting on the Toga.
Researcher’s notes vary on the ideal length of the toga but is usually speculated at being around six yards of fabric (Norris, 2015). Over time the length of the toga, as well as the draping of the garment (which is compelling evidence of the shape of the toga changing as well), transformed from a simpler style in the Early Republic to more elaborate in the Early Imperial eras (McManus, 2013). This is especially seen when observing statuary from the different time periods of the Roman Empire side-by-side as illustrated below. This could explain why we often see different shapes of togas presented by researchers as well as different ideas on how to put them on—the toga was constantly evolving as society itself was.
Image 4. Two Different Styles of Toga Based on Time Period—Late Republic vs. Early Imperial.
The toga is bulky and always in danger of falling off. Ideally, the weight of the fabric and the friction of the wool helped to keep the toga on. Small lead weights or even strips of wood might have been used in the time period to keep the toga on and draped the way it should be (Cavazzi, 2008). For the modern reenactor who is constantly moving about or just started experimenting with the toga; well-hidden safety pins carefully utilized work wonders.
The Stola
The stola is for women what the toga is for men; an overgarment. In early Rome, before the second century B.C.E., women would have worn the toga as well as the men. However, by the Republican era of the Empire, the toga was a sign of disgrace for women (McManus, 2013). The stola, then, is what would have been worn by women of Rome especially from mid-Republic to early Empire (Rose, 2017) and was a sign of a respectable, married woman of the Roman world.
The stola is made of lightweight wool constructed as a simple tube with straps, pins, or knotted together to help keep it on the body. The stola would make a distinctive “v” neckline and would drape around the body and could have sleeves or not—but the basic shape is always there no matter how the garment would be attached. The length, as seen in statuary especially, ranges from just above the ankles to floor length (Rose, 2017). The stola would have always been worn over a tunica.
There has been discussion as to the historical accuracy of silk stolas such as those seen on popular television shows like Spartacus (2010-2013 HBO series) and Rome (2005-2007 BBC series), but the discussion among historians and recreationists is still ongoing. Many researchers believe that silk would have been a sign of decadence in the Roman world while others believe that silk would be a clear signal of wealth and social status. Unfortunately, pictorial evidence does not show evidence one way or the other.
When we think of Ancient Rome we often think of white…that is what color the marble statues and columns are, right? The fact is Romans loved color and one only must examine the walls and frescoes still about today, especially in Pompeii, to see this. This love of color was used by women and incorporated into their overgarments—creating a myriad of hues and colors. Remember that while wool takes dye rather well there was no access to vibrant dyes in the Ancient world—period dyestuffs are simply not as vivacious as today’s standards. The effect would have been lighter shades and pastels (Rose, 2017). Stripes, with the exception of clavi, are apparently reserved for upholstery.
Image 5. Example of Coloration of Stolas
While the stola was of a solid color, it could also be ornamented in some fashion. Decorative shoulder pins and a band of contrasting color at the hem, called a institia, often were the only decoration but also served a purpose; the pin help to hold the stola on while the institia could have been replaced when it got dirty dragging across the floor. Additionally, the stola would also have been belted twice with narrow belt directly under the breasts and a wider one around the waist, although many depictions of especially domestic scenes, show a narrow belt only around the waist (Rose, 2017).
The stola was a sign of a Roman women’s virtue and well-bearing and as such would have been relegated in its use often by law especially by custom. Women of lesser social status would have simply worn the tunica while the higher up in the social arena you were the stola would have echoed this social value.
The stola eventually came out of favor around the same time the toga did. This was probably due to other fashions being brought to the Roman Empire as well as the fact that bulky layers are a hassle especially in warmer climates (Rose, 2017).
The Palla
While we have discussed the stola it is important to note another important feature of women’s clothing: the palla. This overgarment was a rectangle of cloth that was worn as protection against the elements as well as another social status garment. The palla can be visually interpreted as a shawl or a type of mantle used by Roman women. It could be wrapped similar to a toga but with enough differences to not be mistaken as one. However, the palla can be worn in any way (according to inspections of statuary and other pictorial documentation), though it was common to hang one end of the palla over the left shoulder and wrap it around the back to bring the other end under the right arm and then across the left forearm or back over the left shoulder. This allowed the back of the cloth to be placed over the head which assisted the wearer in upholding the Roman tradition that well-bred women should cover their head in public. Additionally, the palla could be draped around the shoulders, as in the modern shawl, or even around the hips as seen in pictorial evidence of domestic scenes.
Image 6. Iphigenia with Stola and Palla
The color of the palla could be of almost any color, much like the stola, except for purple which was reserved for Imperial use only. In surviving frescoes; the palla is observed to be a contrasting or complimentary color to the stola creating a diverse and colorful fashion palette. Additionally, there could be decoration on a palla that would have commonly been a strip of contrasting color along one or both of the longer edges or on both shorter edges of the rectangle (Rose, 2017). Pins attaching the palla to the rest of the outfit cannot be seen and the palla may have relied on texture and weight of the fabric, as well as careful placement, to stay on correctly much like it’s toga counterpart.
The palla, however, is more than a fashion accessory that adds extra color and texture to the outfit. The palla is a very important article of clothing that represented the virtues of a respectable Roman Matron. To wear the palla was to announce that you were the epitome of Roman virtues and a member of the higher social structure of the Roman world. Dependent on the wearers status in the social hierarchy the tunica, the stola, and the palla would be worn in different combinations. A working woman, for example, would wear just the tunica. Republican non-matrons or mid-level status women would wear the tunica and the stola. Higher ranking women, such as Matrons in the Republic and early Empire would have worn the tunica, the stola, and the palla (Rose, 2017).
Conclusion
Any well-dressed, upper-class Roman should strive to uphold the virtues of the Roman world by wearing outerwear over their garments. Creating these items--the toga, the stola, and the palla—adds more color, more vibrancy, and in cases of living in Northern climes, a bit more warmth to survive those cold days. And, especially in the case of the toga, while we do not know the actual shape of these garments, we can look at the “Creative” part of the Society for Creative Anachronism and infer from pictorial documentation as well as the resources we have access to and create wondrous garments that exemplify the glory of the Roman Empire.
The toga is not really used today except by Historical Recreationists—the most notable being the Roman groups of Europe and some people within The Society for Creative Anachronism (or those collegiate Fraternities and their wild parties )—however we can find the toga as it was meant to be used is still in effect today. The incarnation of the toga is sometimes used by peoples that can claim descent from Romanized pūnici (people from Carthage) such as the Arabized Berbers of Tripolitania in Libya—a prominent example being the toga worn by Muammar Gaddafi on several occasions (Norris, 2015).
Image 7. Portrait of Muammar Gaddafi.
As we create these garments of the ancient Roman world we are reminded that strict sumptuary laws, the desire to show wealth and status in clothing, and the social interactions between peoples helped to shape fashion in the ancient world. That is part of what we do in the Society for Creative Anachronism and other re-creation groups around the world…we study the past, present it, most importantly learn from it, and extrapolate our own ideas on how our ancestors lived in a past that is presented to us in artifacts—that is part of the joy of recreating garments from the past.
And as for more research, especially into the fashion of the ancients, learning more about these national costumes of the Roman Empire can help us make informed decisions when we take the time to research and present historically accurate costuming of the Ancient Roman Empire.
References
Bonfante, L. (2003). Etruscan Dress. JHU Press.
Cavazzi, F. (2008, June). Roman Dress. Retrieved from Illustrated History of the Roman Empire: http://www.roman-empire.net/society/soc-dress.html
McManus, B. F. (2013, August). Roman Clothing. Retrieved from vroma.org: http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/clothing.html
Norris, S. T. (2015, September 9). The Toga--Not For Everyone. Retrieved from Rome Across Europe: http://www.romeacrosseurope.com/?p=2538#sthash.DXbVpsPd.dpbs
Rose, S. (2017, March). The Roman Stola. Retrieved from Romana Sum: https://romanasum.com/2017/03/22/the-roman-stola-part-i-why-wool/
Smith, P. (2012, September 29). A Dictionary of Greek and Roman Antiquities. Retrieved from Toga: http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/secondary/SMIGRA*/Toga.html
Vout, C. (1996). The Myth of the Toga: Understanding the History of Roman Dress. Greece & Rome, 204-220.
Image Sources
Image 1. Roman Clad in the Toga. Image from Ancient History Encyclopedia.
Image 2. Ideal Shape of the Toga. Image from Nova Roma, an international Roman revivalist and reconstructionist organization.
Image 3. Putting the Toga. Image from mmdtkw.org. Image altered by Halfdan Ozurrson.
Image 4. Two Different Styles of Toga Based on Time Period—Late Republic vs. Early Imperial. The left image is from the beginning of the first century BCE. The right image is from the first century CE. Images from vroma.org.
Image 5. Example of Coloration of Stolas. From the House of the Surgeon, Pompeii; now in the Naples Museum.
Image 6. Iphigenia with Stola and Palla. Fresco in Room 30 at the Villa San Marco. Mid-1st Century CE.
Image 7. Portrait of Muammar Gaddafi. From Time magazine, March 24, 2011.
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